America has an insane need for guns; anything that goes Bang. It's the cowboy syndrome. Or are they just paranoid and need to have a gun to shoot, even if it's six year old's in grade school?
Little known facts:
July 4 was not the signing of the Declaration of Independence.
In the days leading up to July 4, 1776, Thomas Jefferson delivered a draft of what would eventually become the Declaration of Independence. The paper was discussed, updated, and altered by the whole Congress of the United States on July 2 and July 3. As of the 4th of July, they had confirmed the text. It wasn't until two weeks later that the official copy of the Declaration of Independence was finally prepared, and it wasn't until August 2 that it was signed. On June 28, 1776, the renowned picture by John Trumbull depicting Jefferson, John Hancock, John Adams, Ben Franklin, and Roger Sherman does not portray the signing of the document; rather, it depicts them giving the manuscript to the people.
A relatively low number of people showed up to the signing.
The paper remained in Philadelphia until each of the 56 delegates could ultimately journey there by horse. This was due to the fact that FedEx offered no delivery service. The collection of all of the signatures would take a period of six months to complete. Even though some copies of the declaration do not have McKean's name on them, the final person to sign the declaration was Thomas McKean of Delaware. It is possible that he signed it as late as 1777 (the exact date is contested).
A word about the signers
Thomas Lynch Jr. and Edward Rutledge, both of South Carolina, were under the age of 26 when they signed the Declaration of Independence, making them the youngest people to do so. At seventy years old, Benjamin Franklin was the oldest. The British Isles were the place of birth for eight of the guys. It goes without saying that they were attorneys, but they were also businesspeople, farmers, educators, and even a clergyman (John Witherspoon of New Jersey included). The Bellarmonic, which was invented by Francis Hopkinson, and the glass armonica, which was invented by Benjamin Franklin, were both musical instruments that were named after similarly called musical instruments but were never popular.
A total of nine of the signers passed away before to the official victory of independence.
At the time that the states attained their independence in 1783, nine of the signers had passed away, and several of them had passed away under peculiar circumstances. Duel over conduct during a fight resulted in the death of Button Gwinnett, who was from Georgia. In addition, Thomas Lynch Jr., who was one of the two youngest players to join, passed away as a result of drowning in a storm as he was traveling to France.
A number of additional declarations of independence were also made.
As early as 1776, it appeared that there was no way to bring an end to the conflict, and there was little chance for a reconciliation with England. It was for this reason that a number of communities and colonies came up with their very own declarations of independence. As well as being laborers, the writers were also judges and legislators. It has come to light that the principles expressed in the formal Declaration of Independence are strikingly comparable to those expressed in the declarations made at the local level.
In a short amount of time, the initial celebration
At the time that the statement was being read to the troops of the Continental Army on July 9, they were on the point of being defeated by the British Army. There was just enough time for the soldiers and their followers to dismantle the two-ton statue of George III that was located in New York. They then transported the monument up the East River to Connecticut, where its components were melted down and eventually turned into musket balls.
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The paper was on the verge of becoming useless.
Nearly all of George Washington's forces were unable to escape from New York City because of the British. A means of escape was discovered by Washington, who then proceeded to cross the Delaware River and reorganize before resuming his offensive operations. It is possible that the war would have been lost, the Declaration of Independence would have been nothing more than evidence of treason, and there is no knowing what type of history we would be talking about today if the British had been more active and shut off Washington in Manhattan.
When the first humans arrived in the Americas, around 15,000 years before the present, the history of the areas that would later become the United States of America started. There were a great number of indigenous cultures that emerged, and many of them underwent changes in the 16th century, moving away from lifestyles that were more densely populated and toward reformed polities in other parts of the world. Although the Europeans began their colonization of the Americas in the latter half of the 15th century, the majority of the colonies that would eventually become the United States of America were not inhabited until around the year 1600. There were around 2.5 million people living in the thirteen British colonies by the time the 1760s rolled around. These colonies were formed along the Atlantic Coast, east of the Appalachian Mountains.
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Slave labor was used to construct an agricultural system in the Southern Colonies, which imported slaves from Africa for the purpose of creating this system. Following their victory over France, the British government proceeded to levy a number of taxes, one of which was the Stamp Act of 1765. This was done in spite of the colonists' constitutional argument that new levies need their authority to be approved. In response to the opposition to these levies, particularly the Boston Tea Party in 1773, Parliament passed punitive legislation with the intention of putting an end to the concept of self-government. The year 1775 marked the beginning of armed combat in Massachusetts.
During the Second Continental Congress, which took place in Philadelphia in 1776, the colonies formally declared their independence and were known as the "United States." It triumphed in the Revolutionary War under the leadership of General George Washington. The frontiers of the newly formed independent state were determined by the peace treaty that was signed in 1783. The Articles of Confederation established a central government, but it was ineffective in providing stability because it was unable to collect taxes and it did not have an executive officer.
The new Constitution was drafted by a conference and approved in 1789. In 1791, a Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution in order to ensure that some rights are inalienable. George Washington served as the nation's first president, while Alexander Hamilton served as his top adviser. This led to the establishment of a powerful central government. In the year 1803, the United States of America quadrupled in size as a result of the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory from France.
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The idea of manifest destiny served as a driving force behind the expansion of the United States of America to the Pacific Coast. The population of the nation in 1790 was just four million, despite the fact that it was a vast nation in terms of its land area. A search for affordable land for yeoman farmers and slave owners was the primary impetus behind the westward expansion of the United States. Compromises were reached in order to overcome the political and constitutional conflicts that were caused by the growth of slavery, which garnered an increasing amount of controversy. In 1804, all states that were located north of the Mason–Dixon line had abolished slavery. However, those that were located in the south continued to practice the system of slavery in order to maintain the kind of large-scale agriculture that dominated the economy of the southern states.
The election of Abraham Lincoln as president in 1860 was the impetus for the beginning of the Civil War, which was sparked by the southern states' decision to separate from the Union in order to establish their own pro-slavery nation, which it called the Confederate States of America. The abolition of slavery was a direct result of the Confederates' loss in the Civil War in 1865. Men who had been emancipated from slavery were granted the ability to vote and legal protections during the period of Reconstruction that followed the war. As a result, the national government became far more powerful and was given the specific responsibility to safeguard individual rights. However, when white southern Democrats regained their political power in the South in 1877, especially through the use of paramilitary forces to suppress voting, they passed Jim Crow laws to maintain white supremacy. Additionally, they passed new state constitutions that legalized discrimination based on race and prevented the majority of African Americans from participating in public life.
As a result of an explosion of entrepreneurialism and industrialization, as well as the entrance of millions of immigrant workers and farmers, the United States of America emerged as the preeminent industrial force in the world at the turn of the 20th century. In addition to the establishment of large-scale mines and industries, a completed national railroad network was also constructed. The Progressive movement, which lasted from the 1890s to the 1920s, was sparked by widespread discontent with traditional politics, inefficiency, and corruption. This movement ultimately resulted in a number of reforms, such as the establishment of a federal income tax, the direct election of senators, the granting of citizenship to a large number of indigenous people, the prohibition of alcohol, and the right of women to vote. During World War I, the United States of America was initially neutral; but, in 1917, they declared war on Germany and provided financial support for the Allied triumph the following year. Immediately following the wealthy Roaring Twenties, the Wall Street Crash of 1929 signaled the beginning of the Great Depression, which lasted for ten years and affected the whole world. The measures that President Franklin D. Roosevelt enacted as part of his New Deal included helping those who were without jobs, providing assistance to farmers, establishing social security, and establishing a minimum wage. Modern liberalism in the United States was defined by the New Deal. The United States of America entered World War II after the Japanese assault on Pearl Harbor. They provided financial support to the Allied war effort and contributed to the victory over Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in the European theater of operations. Its participation culminated with the use of nuclear bombs that had been newly produced by the United States on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in order to defeat Imperial Japan in the Pacific War.
Pictorial map of the United States in 1992, after the end of the Cold War This article is part of a series on the Culture of the United States Greater coat of arms of the United States.svg Society HistoryLanguagePeople race and ethnicityReligion Arts and literature ArchitectureArtDanceFashionLiterature comicspoetryMusicSculptureTheater Other CuisineFestivalsFolkloreMedia newspapersradiocinemaTVInternetAmericanaMythologySports Symbols FlagGreat SealMonumentsMottoAnthemBirdWorld Heritage Sites Flag of the United States.svg United States portal vte The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as rival superpowers in the aftermath of World War II. During the Cold War, the two countries confronted each other indirectly in the arms race, the Space Race, propaganda campaigns, and proxy wars. Additionally, in the 1960s, another wave of social reforms was established, which enforced the constitutional rights of voting and freedom of movement to African Americans. This was largely owing to the strength of the civil rights movement, which was a driving factor behind these changes. With the formal dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Cold War came to an end, and the United States of America retained its position as the lone superpower in the globe. After the end of the Cold War, the focus of foreign policy has frequently been on disputes in the Middle East, particularly in the aftermath of the attacks on September 11. The United States of America went through the Great Recession and the COVID-19 epidemic at the beginning of the 21st century, both of which had a detrimental impact on the economy of the local community.
In the beginning, there were three main articles: the Prehistory of the United States, the History of Native Americans in the United States, and the Pre-Columbian era. Additionally, there are Native Americans in the United States pages.
It is not known for certain how or when Native Americans initially populated the Americas and the present-day United States of America. However, the approximate location of the ice-free corridor and specific Paleoindian sites is known. The dominant explanation argues that humans from Eurasia followed game across Beringia, a land bridge that connected Siberia to present-day Alaska during the Ice Age, and then expanded southward throughout the Americas. Beringia was a land bridge that connected Siberia to Alaska. Beginning as early as 30,000 years ago, this movement may have lasted until around 10,000 years ago, when the land bridge was inundated by the increasing sea level caused by the melting glaciers. This migration may have began as early as 30,000 years ago. These first occupants, who are referred to as Paleo-Indians, quickly diversified into hundreds of countries and tribes that are culturally unique from one another.
All of the eras in the history of the Americas that occurred before to the arrival of European influences on the American continents are included in this pre-Columbian era. These periods range from the time of the first settlement, which occurred during the Upper Paleolithic period, to the time of European colonization, which occurred during the early modern period. In practice, the term typically encompasses the history of indigenous American cultures up until the time that they were conquered or significantly influenced by Europeans, even if this occurred decades or centuries after Christopher Columbus' initial landing. Although the term technically refers to the time period before Christopher Columbus' voyage in 1492, in practice, the term typically encompasses the history of the American indigenous peoples.
Article principal: Paleo-Indians; North America before the arrival of Europeans
This is according to Alfred Kroeber, who describes the cultural regions of pre-Columbian North America. By the year 10,000 BCE, humanity had established themselves rather successfully over the entirety of North America. In the beginning, Paleo-Indians made their living by hunting Ice Age megafauna such as mammoths. However, when these animals began to become extinct, humans came to rely on bison as a source of sustenance. The practice of foraging for berries and seeds became an increasingly significant alternative to hunting as time progressed. The earliest people in the Americas to cultivate land were the Paleo-Indians who lived in central Mexico. Around 8,000 BCE, they began planting crops such as maize, beans, and squash. Eventually, the information started to travel in a northerly direction. Corn had been cultivated in the lowlands of Arizona and New Mexico by the year 3,000 BCE, and this was followed by the development of primitive irrigation systems and the first towns of the Hohokam people.
One of the first cultures that existed in what is now the United States of America was the Clovis culture. This culture is chiefly distinguished by the usage of fluted spear points that are referred to as the Clovis point. During the period of time between 9,100 and 8,850 BCE, the culture was present throughout South America in addition to a significant portion of North America. Artifacts belonging to this civilization were discovered for the first time in 1932 in the vicinity of Clovis, New Mexico. Folsom civilization was comparable to other cultures, but it is distinguished by the usage of the Folsom point.
According to the findings of linguists, anthropologists, and archeologists, a further migration took place about the year 8,000 BCE. These peoples included those who spoke the Na-Dene language and arrived in the Pacific Northwest around 5,000 BCE. From that point on, they moved down the Pacific Coast and into the interior of the country, where they built vast multi-family buildings in their communities. These dwellings were only utilized on a seasonal basis during the summer months for hunting and fishing, and during the winter months for gathering food supplies. Archaic Southwest was home to a different set of people known as the Oshara tradition people. These individuals lived between the years 5,500 BCE and 600 CE.
Ten minutes and fifty-eight seconds into the story, the Pawnee people tell a folktale called "The First Corn." The Native American agricultural system relied heavily on maize as its primary crop. The Mound Builders and the Ancestral Puebloans are the main articles.
One of the largest conical mounds in the United States is the Grave Creek Mound, which can be found near the town of Moundsville in the state of West Virginia. The culture of the Adena helped to construct it.
Summertime at the Monks Mound of Cahokia Mound
This UNESCO World Heritage Site is located in Mesa Verde National Park and is known as Cliff Palace. Around 600 BCE, the Adena people began constructing massive earthwork mounds within the park. Despite the fact that they are the oldest known people to have been mound builders, there are mounds in the United States that date back to a time before their culture. Poverty Point, which is located nearby, is an earthwork complex that dates back to 1,700 BCE and was constructed by the Poverty Point civilization. Watson Brake, which is located in Louisiana, is an 11-mound complex that dates back to 3,500 BCE. The aim of these mounds was most likely religious in nature.
The Adenans were assimilated into the Hopewell culture, which was a strong tribe that traded tools and products across a large region. They maintained the Adena custom of building mounds, and traces of several thousand mounds may still be seen distributed around the heart of their former region in southern Ohio. The Hopewell people were the pioneers of a trade system known as the Hopewell Exchange System. This system, at its most extensive, extended from the region that is now the Southeast to the shore of Lake Ontario that is located in Canada. Furthermore, by the year 500 CE, the Hopewellians had vanished, having been assimilated into the greater Mississippian culture.
There were several different tribes that made up the Mississippians. Located close to what is now the city of St. Louis in Missouri, Cahokia was their most significant city. A population of around 20,000 people was believed to have existed in the city during its height in the 12th century, which was greater than the population of London at that time. An enormous mound that was one hundred feet in height served as the focal point of the whole city. In the same way that many other towns and villages of the time were dependent on hunting, foraging, commerce, and agriculture, Cahokia created a class structure that included slavery and human sacrifice. This system was influenced by cultures to the south, such as the Mayans.
The Anasazi people started building pueblos made of stone and adobe around the year 900 BCE in the Southwest American region. As may be seen at the Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde, these constructions that resembled apartments were frequently constructed into the hillsides of cliffs. Pueblo Bonito, which is located in New Mexico near the Chaco River, was originally comprised of 800 rooms. Some of these settlements eventually developed to the size of towns.
Indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands and Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast are the two main articles that provide information about the northwest and northeast.
At Sitka National Historical Park, the K'alyaan Totem pole of the Tlingit Kiks.adi Clan was constructed as a memorial to the lives that were lost in the Battle of Sitka in the year 1804. The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest were perhaps the most prosperous Native Americans. There were many different cultural groups and governmental institutions that evolved there, but regardless of their differences, they all shared some beliefs, customs, and practices. One of them was the significance of salmon as a resource and a spiritual symbol. As early as one thousand years before the common era (BCE), permanent towns started to emerge in this area. The potlatch, a feast that consisted of gift-giving, was the celebration of these communities. In most cases, these get-togethers were planned to honor significant occasions, such as the erecting of a totem pole or the celebration of a new chief.
Beginning in the middle of the 15th century, the Iroquois established a confederacy of indigenous peoples in what is now the upstate region of New York. This confederacy included the Oneida, Mohawk, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. Their system of association was similar to that of a federation, which was distinct from the powerful and centralized monarchy that existed in Europe. There were fifty sachem leaders, and each tribe had a place in the gathering. In the process of the formation of the government of the United States of America, it has been hypothesized that their culture played a role in the development of political thought. As a result of their strength, the Iroquois engaged in warfare with a large number of surrounding tribes and, subsequently, Europeans. Over the course of their territorial expansion, lesser tribes, such as the Osage, Kaw, Ponca, and Omaha peoples, were compelled to relocate further westward.
Main articles: Ancient Hawaii and Hawaiian Kingdom Although the precise date of the first settlement in Hawaii is a matter of debate, it is most likely that the initial settlement took place between the years 940 and 1130 CE. Around the year 1200 CE, Tahitian explorers discovered the region and began settling it. They also established a new caste structure throughout the region. This event marked the beginning of the Hawaiian civilization, which would remain mostly isolated from the rest of the world until the arrival of the British one thousand years later. Europeans, led by the British explorer James Cook, arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in the year 1778. Within five years of their arrival, Kamehameha I would be able to conquer the majority of the island group with the assistance of European military equipment. This would eventually lead to the unification of the islands for the first time, which would result in the establishment of the Hawaiian Kingdom.
Main articles: History of Puerto Rico and Taino The island of Puerto Rico has been inhabited for at least 4,000 years, dating back to the remains of Puerto Ferro man. Taino is the name of the Taino people. Beginning with the Ortoiroid civilization, several generations of native migrations came, either displacing or assimilating the residents of the surrounding area. There were about one thousand Arawak people who had arrived from South America through the Lesser Antilles by the year 1000. These immigrants would later become the Taino people who the Spanish encountered in the year 1493. As soon as Europeans first contact with them, it was believed that there was a native population of between 30,000 and 60,000 people, governed by a single leader known as a Cacique. Both the harsh Encomienda system and the epidemics produced by illnesses that originated in the Old World contributed to the devastation of the native population that occurred as a result of colonization. Puerto Rico would continue to be a part of Spain until the year 1898, when it was annexated by the United States.
The colonization of North America by Norse people is the primary topic of this essay."
Leiv Eirikson's Discovering America, written by Christian Krohg in 1893 The first documented European reference of America is found in a historical treatise written by Adam of Bremen, a medieval historian, around the year 1075. In this treatise, the region is referred to as Vinland throughout the text. Additionally, it is mentioned in great detail in the Norse Vinland sagas that were written in the 13th century and relate to events that took place around the year 1000 respectively. Despite the fact that the most compelling archaeological evidence of Norse settlements in America can be found in Canada, most notably at L'Anse aux Meadows, which dates back to around the year 1000, there is a significant amount of scholarly debate regarding whether or not Norse explorers also made landfall in New England and other east-coast regions. Calvin Coolidge, the President of the United States, made the announcement in 1925 that Leif Erikson, a Norse adventurer, was the first European to find the Americans.
A color-coded representation of the early Native American tribe boundaries, organized according to the language group Colonization, settlement, and communities Main article: the history of the United States' colonial period
The territorial claims of Europeans in North America, about the year?After a period of exploration that was funded by major European powers, the first successful English settlement was formed in the year 1607. This achievement occurred in France, Great Britain, and Spain. In return for bringing back to Europe maize, turkeys, tomatoes, potatoes, tobacco, beans, and squash, Europeans brought horses, cattle, and pigs to the Americas. In addition, Europeans brought back tobacco, beans, and squash. As a result of being exposed to new illnesses in the Americas, a significant number of early settlers and explorers passed away. On the other hand, the Native Americans were not immune to the new Eurasian illnesses that were brought to the Americas by the colonists. This meant that the impacts of these diseases, particularly measles and smallpox, were considerably more severe for them. They were devastated by diseases and lost a significant number of people, often prior to the beginning of European settlement on a widespread scale. As a result of the large number of fatalities, their civilizations were rendered ineffective and empty.
Initial settlements Main article: European colonization of the Americas Spanish contact Main article: Spanish colonization of the Americas Spanish explorers were the first Europeans to reach the present-day United States. This occurred after Christopher Columbus's expeditions established possessions in the Caribbean, including the modern-day territories of Puerto Rico and parts of the United States from the Caribbean to the United States. There are the Virgin Islands. 1513 was the year when Juan Ponce de Leon arrived in Florida. The Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon, and the Great Plains were all swiftly visited by Spanish expeditions due to their rapid travel.
20:05 The Letter of Christopher Columbus to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain Regarding the Discovery of America In the year 1539, Hernando de Soto conducted significant explorations in the Southeast, while Francisco Coronado conducted explorations from Arizona to central Kansas in pursuit of gold. The horses that had escaped from Coronado's group spread throughout the Great Plains, and within a few generations, the Plains Indians had successfully acquired the art of horsemanship. San Antonio, Albuquerque, Tucson, Los Angeles, and San Francisco are just few of the significant cities that initially began as little Spanish colonies and gradually developed to become major metropolis.
Main article: Dutch colonization of the Americas The Dutch West India Company dispatched explorer Henry Hudson in 1609 to hunt for a Northwest Passage to Asia. This was the beginning of the Dutch colonization of the Americas. The firm decided to build New Netherland in 1621 in order to benefit on the fur trade that was taking place in North America. In the beginning, growth was slow because to poor administration on the part of the Dutch and confrontations with Native Americans. The Dutch established New Amsterdam as the capital of New Netherland after purchasing the island of Manhattan from the Native Americans for a reported sum of twenty-four dollars in United States currency. The property was given the name New Amsterdam. The town saw fast growth, and by the middle of the 1600s, it had developed into a significant port and commerce hub. The Dutch were tolerant of different religions and civilizations, and they engaged in commerce with the Iroquois, who lived to the north of them. This was despite the fact that they were Calvinists and had established the Reformed Church in America.
In order to prevent the British from expanding their territory from New England, the colony acted as a barrier, which led to a number of conflicts being waged. Under the name New York, the colony was renamed New York City when it was taken over by Britain in 1664 and given the name New York. The New Netherland made an indelible mark on the cultural and political life of the United States, establishing a legacy of religious tolerance and practical trade in urban regions, while rural traditionalism was prevalent in rural areas. Notable people in the United States of America who are of Dutch heritage include Martin Van Buren, Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt, and the Frelinghuysen people.
Swedish settlement Main article: New Sweden In the early years of the Swedish Empire, Swedish, Dutch, and German shareholders established the New Sweden Company with the purpose of engaging in the trade of furs and tobacco in North America. The first voyage of the company was commanded by Peter Minuit, who had served as governor of New Netherland from 1626 to 1631. However, he quit the position due to a disagreement with the Dutch government. Minuit arrived at Delaware Bay in March of 1638. With the intention of acquiring territory on both banks of the Delaware River, the settlers established Fort Christina at the location that is now known as Wilmington, Delaware. Additionally, they negotiated land ownership agreements with the indigenous communities.
New Sweden was the destination of twelve other voyages that carried immigrants from the Swedish Empire over the course of the subsequent seventeen years. 19 permanent villages and a large number of farms were built by the colony, which extended into what is now the states of Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey with its expansion. Following an assault by the Dutch from the New Netherland colony that was located nearby during the Second Northern War, it was integrated into New Netherland in the year 1655.
In the year 1524, Giovanni da Verrazzano, who was involved in a struggle between France and Spain, arrived in North Carolina. He was also the first European to sail into New York Harbor and Narragansett Bay respectively. A decade later, Jacques Cartier set off with the hope of finding the Northwest Passage. However, he ended up discovering the Saint Lawrence River instead, which established the groundwork for French colonization of the Americas in New France. Following the failure of the initial Quebec colony in the 1540s, French Huguenots came to establish at Fort Caroline, which is located in the vicinity of Jacksonville, Florida, in the United States. St. Augustine, the first European town in what would later become the United States of America, was built in 1565 by Spanish soldiers commanded by Pedro Menendez. These forces were responsible for the destruction of the settlement.
Following this, the French primarily remained in Quebec and Acadia; nevertheless, they established extensive trading links with Native Americans across the Great Lakes and Midwest, which allowed them to expand their sphere of influence considerably. Farming towns that provided a source of grain for settlements on the Gulf Coast were inhabited by French colonists who resided in tiny villages along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers. Plantations were founded in Louisiana by the French, who also settled New Orleans, Mobile, and Biloxi during this time period.
The colonization of the Americas by the British Additional information on the British colonies
Pilgrims were brought to the New World by the Mayflower, which was one of the ships. During the first winter that the Pilgrims lived in Plymouth, about half of them perished. In the 1600s, the English colonized the strip of land along the east coast following Francis Drake's assaults on Spanish treasure ships that were fleeing the New World. These expeditions attracted the English to the area. It was in the year 1585 when Walter Raleigh attempted to build the first British colony in North America at Roanoke, but it was unsuccessful. If there were to be another effort, it would be twenty years later.
There were instances of famine, sickness, and raids by Native Americans throughout the early years of the British colonies, which were founded by private organizations with the intention of making a profit. Individuals who were seeking religious freedom or escaping political tyranny, peasants who had been displaced as a result of the Industrial Revolution, or people who were just looking for adventure and opportunity were among the many people who immigrated. It is believed that between 50,000 and 120,000 prisoners were transported by the British to their American colonies between the late 1610s and the beginning of the Revolutionary War.
In certain regions, natural Americans instructed colonists on how to cultivate and harvest the natural crops that were grown there. Attacks were made against the settlers in various areas. Virgin woods offered a plentiful supply of construction materials and firewood to the people who lived there. The coastline was dotted with natural inlets and harbors, which provided convenient ports for conducting crucial trade with Europe. This, together with the opposition of Native Americans and the Appalachian Mountains that were located in the interior, contributed to the fact that settlements continued to be located in close proximity to the shore.
Jamestown, Virginia, and the Colony of Virginia are the two main articles discussing the first colony at Jamestown.
The first successful English colony, Jamestown, was built by the Virginia Company in 1607 on the James River in Virginia. Squanto is noted for having been an early connector between the local inhabitants in Southern New England and the Mayflower immigrants. Jamestown was the first American settlement to be established by the English. Due to their preoccupation with the pursuit for gold, the colonists were not adequately prepared for life in the New World until much later. In the first year, Captain John Smith was responsible for keeping the nascent colony of Jamestown together. However, when he returned to England two years later, the colony had already sunk into disorder and was on the verge of failing. The year 1612 marked the beginning of John Rolfe's experimentation with tobacco from the West Indies, and by the year 1614, the very first cargo of tobacco arrived in London. Within a decade, it emerged as the primary source of revenue for the state of Virginia.
Following a number of years of sickness and raids by Native Americans, notably the Powhatan invasion that took place in 1622, King James I withdrew the charter of the Virginia Company and established Virginia as a royal colony in the year 1624.
Puritan migration to New England and the New England Colonies are the two main articles that pertain to the New England Colonies.
In the beginning, the majority of people who came in New England were Puritans who were escaping religious persecution. The Pilgrim Hall Museum in Plymouth, Massachusetts shows the First Thanksgiving that took place in the year 1914. The Mayflower, which was carrying the Pilgrims, set sail for Virginia in the year 1620. However, it was thrown off course by a storm, and they ended up landing at Plymouth. It was then that they agreed to a social compact of laws that was known as the Mayflower Compact. As was the case with Jamestown, Plymouth was plagued by sickness and malnutrition; nevertheless, the Wampanoag Indians who lived in the area taught the colonists how to cultivate maize.
In the year 1630, the Puritans and the Massachusetts Bay Colony founded their colonies after Plymouth. They picked John Winthrop, the founding father of the colony, to serve as governor for the majority of its early years, and they kept a charter for self-government that was independent from England. Roger Williams, who was opposed to Winthrop's treatment of Native Americans and religious intolerance, founded the colony of Providence Plantations, which would eventually become Rhode Island, on the principle of religious liberty. There were other colonists who built towns in the valley of the Connecticut River, as well as on the shores of what is now the states of New Hampshire and Maine. There was a continuation of attacks by Native Americans, with the most notable ones taking place during the Pequot War in 1637 and the King Philip's War in 2016 respectively.
The poor, hilly soil of New England made cultivation difficult, which led to the region being a hub of trade and industry when it was found. Grain mills and sawmills were powered by rivers that were harnessed for electricity, and the various harbors made it easier to do business. With the development of these industrial areas came the formation of close-knit communities, and Boston became one of the most significant ports in the United States.
Colonies in the Middle The primary article on Middle Colonies
At a Hudson's Bay Company trading post in the nineteenth century, Native Americans engage in the exchange of fur packs. The Middle Colonies of New York, New Jersey, and Delaware were founded in the 1660s in what was once known as the Dutch New Netherland. These colonies were distinguished by a significant amount of religious and ethnic variety among its original inhabitants. Concurrently, the Iroquois of New York, who had been engaged in fur trade with Europeans for a considerable amount of time, came together to establish the formidable Iroquois Confederacy.
Pennsylvania, which was founded in 1681 by William Penn as a haven for religious dissenters such as Quakers, Methodists, and Amish, was the final colony to be created in this region. In a very short period of time, Philadelphia, the colony's capital, developed into a preeminent commercial town, complete with bustling ports and brick architecture. During the time when Quakers were populating the city, German immigrants started flooding into the hills and forests of Pennsylvania, and Scots-Irish people were pushing their way into the western frontier.
Main article: Southern Colonies Southern Colonies Primary article:
The slaughter of Jamestown settlers by Native Americans in the year 1622. The colonists in the South quickly came to view all Indians as potential adversaries. New England and the Middle Colonies were very different from the Southern Colonies, which were characterized by their predominant agricultural nature. Maryland was the second British colony south of New England, following Virginia. It was founded in 1632 as a Catholic refuge following the establishment of Virginia. It was entirely yeoman farmers and planters who were responsible for the establishment of these two colonies' economies. The planters established themselves in the Tidewater region of Virginia, where they constructed huge plantations that utilized slave labor.
The year 1670 marked the beginning of the Province of Carolina, and Charleston quickly became the most important commercial port in the region. Rice, indigo, and timber were also exported from Carolina, making it a more varied economy than Virginia, which likewise relied heavily on tobacco as its primary source of revenue. In 1712, it was split in half, resulting in the formation of North Carolina and South Carolina. In the year 1732, James Oglethorpe created the Georgia Colony, which was the final of the Thirteen Colonies. Its purpose was to serve as a barrier to Spanish Florida and as a reform colony for formerly incarcerated individuals and the impoverished.
Main page on religion: a history of the United States' various religious traditions
In the Rotunda of the United States Capitol is a painting by John Gadsby Chapman titled "Baptism of Pocahontas." In the years after the First Great Awakening, which was a religious movement that took place in the 1740s and was headed by preachers like as Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield, Capitol Religiosity had a significant expansion. A fresh emphasis was placed by American Evangelicals who were influenced by the Awakening on heavenly outpourings of the Holy Spirit and conversions that instilled new believers with a profound love for God. Revivals were the expression of these characteristics and were responsible for bringing the newly formed evangelicalism into the early republic. This helped to pave the way for the Second Great Awakening, which occurred in the late 1790s. In the early phases, evangelicals in the South began preaching for religious freedom and the abolition of slavery. They converted a large number of slaves and acknowledged some of them as preachers. Methodists and Baptists were among the evangelicals who preached.
Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies Each of the thirteen American colonies had a slightly distinct governmental organization. The main page on the subject is titled "Government." In most cases, a colony was governed by a governor who was appointed from London. This governor was in charge of the administrative administration and relied on a locally elected assembly to vote on taxes and enact laws. By the 18th century, the American colonies were experiencing a period of tremendous expansion as a consequence of low mortality rates, as well as abundant resources of land and food throughout the provinces. Due to the fact that the colonies were more prosperous than the majority of the regions in Britain, they drew a consistent stream of immigrants, particularly young people who entered as indentured servants.
Indentured servitude in British America and Slavery in the colonial history of the United States are the two main articles that discuss servitude and slavery. More than half of all European immigrants to Colonial America entered as indentured servants. As a result of the fact that very few people were able to finance the expense of the travel to America, this sort of unfree labor served as a way of immigration. In most cases, individuals would sign a contract in which they agreed to perform labor for a certain period of time, which was often between four and seven years. In exchange, they would be given transportation to the United States of America and a plot of land at the conclusion of their time of servitude. There were instances in which ship captains were rewarded for the delivery of destitute migrants, and as a result, it was customary for them to make exaggerated promises and abduct people. Additionally, the Virginia Company and the Massachusetts Bay Company were also known to employ the work of indentured servants.
The year 1619 saw the arrival of the first African slaves to the state of Virginia, which was only twelve years after Jamestown was established. Slaves were first considered to be indentured servants who had the ability to purchase their freedom. However, as the need for labor on tobacco and rice plantations increased in the 1660s, the system of slavery began to become more rigid, and the imposition of forced servitude became permanent. Slavery became associated with people who had dark complexion, which was considered to be a "black race" at the time. Additionally, descendants of slave mothers were considered to be born slaves. A fifth of the American population was made up of African slaves by the time the 1770s rolled around.
At the same time when the colonies need military assistance from Britain in order to defend themselves against the French and Spanish forces, the topic of independence from Britain did not come up. They were no longer a menace by the year 1765. Despite this, London maintained a doctrine known as mercantilism, which held the belief that the American colonies were established for the purpose of serving the interests of the mother nation.
Slavery and indentured servitude were two types of forced labor that were utilized throughout the time period of Colonial America because of the severe labor shortage that caused it. Additionally, the British colonies were distinguished by a course of action known as salutary neglect, which consisted of avoiding the severe implementation of legislative regulations. Consequently, this made it possible for the American spirit to grow in a way that was unique from that of its European origins.
The American Revolution and the Birth of the New Nation See also: History of the United States and History of the United States See also: First Party System and Second Party System
In 1750, before the French and Indian War, a map depicting the British, French, and Spanish settlements in North America was created. This map shows that South Carolina and Virginia were the birthplaces of an upper-class society, with riches derived from enormous estates that were supported by slave labor. In the region of upstate New York, there was a distinct social hierarchy that existed. This system consisted of Dutch tenant farmers renting property from extremely rich Dutch proprietors, such as the Van Rensselaer family. A more equal approach was taken by the other colonies, with Pennsylvania serving as a notable example. At the middle of the 18th century, Pennsylvania had essentially become a colony of the middle class, with little regard for its relatively small upper class society. In 1756, a writer who was published in the Pennsylvania Journal wrote:
The people that live in this province are, for the most part, of the middle-class variety, and they are now pretty much on par with one another. They are primarily hardworking farmers, artisans, or men in trade; they take pleasure in freedom and are appreciative of it; the most resentful among them believes that he has a right to civility from the most resentful of them.
Integration of political systems and independence
This political cartoon, which was created by Benjamin Franklin in 1756, pushed the colonies to join the French and Indian War. The image was titled "Join or Die." One of the most significant events in the history of the political evolution of the colonies was the French and Indian War, which was a component of the greater Seven Years' War. The territory of the Thirteen Colonies increased into New France, both in Canada and Louisiana, and the power of the French and Native Americans, who were the primary competitors of the British Crown in the colonies and Canada, was greatly decreased. This meant that the territory of the colonies was expanded into New France. Benjamin Franklin was a man of many inventions, and one of them was the concept of a United States of America, which emerged after 1765 and would be realized a decade later. The war effort also resulted in greater political integration of the colonies, as reflected in the Albany Congress and symbolized by Franklin's call for the colonies to "Join, or Die." Franklin was a man of many inventions.
Additional facts on taxes without representation: there is no taxation made without representation
At the Boston Tea Party in 1773, seen in a picture from 1846
The population density in the American colonies in 1775 Following Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 with the purpose of organizing the new North American empire and protecting the Native Americans from colonial expansion into western lands beyond the Appalachian Mountains. This proclamation was issued in 1775. During the years that followed, tensions began to emerge in the relationship that existed between the colonists and the Crown. Without going via the colonial legislatures, the British Parliament approved the Stamp Act of 1765, which imposed a levy on the colonies rather than waiting for them to do so. The question was posed: did the United States Parliament have the authority to levy taxes on citizens who were not represented in it? As tensions rose in the late 1760s and early 1770s, the colonists refused to pay the taxes, chanting "No taxation without representation." This occurred as the times were becoming increasingly tense.
The Boston Tea Party, which took place in 1773, was a direct action taken by social activists in the town of Boston in order to protest the new tax that was placed on tea. The next year, Parliament swiftly reacted by passing the Intolerable Acts, which deprived Massachusetts of its long-standing right to self-government and placed the state under military administration. This action caused fury and opposition across all thirteen colonies. The First Continental Congress was called together by the leaders of the Patriotic Movement from each of the colonies in order to coordinate their opposition to the Intolerable Acts. A list of rights and grievances was published by the Congress, and a petition was submitted to the monarch requesting that he correct those problems. The Congress also advocated for a boycott of British commerce. However, this plea to the Crown was unsuccessful, and as a result, the Second Continental Congress was called together in 1775 in order to plan the defense of the colonies against the British Army.
Even if they were not aware with the intellectual justifications that were being presented, common people became rebels for the sake of fighting against the British. They had a very strong sense of 'rights' that they believed the British were intentionally breaking. These rights emphasized local autonomy, fair dealing, and rule by agreement. They believed that the British were intentionally breaching these rights. The entrance of the British Army in Boston with the intention of punishing the people of Boston made them extremely sensitive to the subject of tyranny, which they perceived as one of the manifestations of the problem. Consequently, this heightened their sense of having their rights infringed, which in turn led to anger and calls for vengeance, and they had trust that God was protecting them.
The American Revolution The primary article on the American Revolution
John Trumbull's Declaration of Independence 9:51 Reading of The Declaration of Independence originally authored by Thomas Jefferson, given on July 4, 1776
The unexpected crossing of the Delaware River by George Washington in December of 1776 was a significant comeback for the United States of America after the fall of New York City. His army was victorious in two engagements against the British and retook New Jersey. On July 2, 1776, participants in the Second Continental Congress agreed to proclaim independence, and the Committee of Five was the group that was responsible for writing the Declaration of Independence. It was in the Declaration of Independence that reasons were provided in support of the rights of citizens. These arguments included the assertion that all men are created equal, the support of the rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, and the demand for the agreement of those who are governed. In addition, it detailed complaints lodged against the crown. Rejecting the monarchy that existed in Great Britain, the Founding Fathers were driven by the philosophy of republicanism since they were opposed to it. On July 4, members of Congress signed the Declaration of Independence, which led to the nation's independence. This day has been designated as Independence Day ever since it was first observed.
Battles of Lexington and Concord, which took place on April 19, 1775, marked the beginning of the American Revolutionary War. These battles were fought by American and British soldiers. General George Washington was given the responsibility of leading the Continental Army. Beginning in 1776, the conflict's first major campaign was the New York and New Jersey campaign. This campaign marked the culmination of the war. The crossing of the Delaware River by Washington marked the beginning of a string of successes that ultimately resulted in the defeat of British forces in New Jersey. In 1777, the British launched the Saratoga campaign with the intention of seizing Albany, New York, which served as a choke point. Following the American victory at Saratoga, many countries, including France, the Netherlands, and Spain, started contributing assistance to the Continental Army. Following its defeat in the northern theater, Britain moved forward in the southern theater, beginning with the capture of Savannah in 1778. This event marked the commencement of the conflict. In the year 1781, American forces were successful in reclaiming the southern region, and on October 19, 1781, the British Army was defeated at the Siege of Yorktown.
On December 5, 1782, King George III issued a formal order to halt hostilities, therefore acknowledging the independence of the United States of America. Establishing conditions of peace was the goal of the negotiations that took place between the United States of America and Great Britain in Paris. This document was signed on September 3, 1783, and on January 14, 1784, it was confirmed by the Congress of the Confederation. On December 23, 1783, Governor George Washington tendered his resignation from his position as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.
Confederation period The United States of America after the Treaty of Paris, with individual state claims and cessions through the year 1802 Confederation period Main article: Confederation period 49:18 Reading of the United States Constitution of 1787 The Articles of Confederation were ratified as the governing law of the United States, and they were written to limit the powers of the central government in favor of state governments. The inability of the government to adopt economic laws and pay its obligations was the root cause of the economic downturn that consequently occurred. Nationalists were concerned that the confederate character of the union was too weak to endure a military confrontation with any antagonistic states or even internal revolts like as the Shays' Rebellion of 1786 in Massachusetts. This was a factor that caused nationalists to express their concern.
The issue of the western areas of the new United States, which had been given by the states to Congress and thus became territories, was able to be resolved by the national government during the 1780s. As a result of the movement of migrants to the Northwest, the regions began to develop into states. Native Americans attacked American civilians, which in turn prompted American assaults on Native American civilians. The American Indian Wars continued in the 1780s as settlers migrated westward, which gave rise to Native American attacks on American people. In the late 1780s, the Northwest Confederacy and American settlers began waging the Northwest Indian War. The Northwestern Confederacy got help from the British government, while the American government provided the settlers with very little assistance.
A large number of nationalists, the most of whom had served in the military, formed in each and every state and persuaded Congress to convene the Philadelphia Convention in the year 1787. A new Constitution was drafted by the representatives from each state, which established a federal government with a powerful president and the authority to levy taxes. The new administration was a reflection of the republican ideas that were prevalent at the time, which included the protection of individual liberty and the limitation of the authority of the government via the implementation of a system of separation of powers. A nationwide discussion was held about the question of whether or not the Constitution ought to be adopted. In the year 1788, the Constitution was ratified by a sufficient number of states to start the process of constructing a federal government. George Washington was selected to serve as the first President of the United States of America by the Electoral College of the United States in the year 1789.
Earnings per person in the United States of America increased. Index with 1700 being set to 100. George Washington, President of the United States Main article: George Washington's years in office
George Washington's legacy remains among the greatest in American history, as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, hero of the Revolution, and the first President of the United States 51:03 Reading of the Farewell address of President George Washington, 1796 George Washington – a renowned hero of the American Revolutionary War, commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, and president of the Constitutional Convention – became the first President of the United States under the new Constitution in 1789. Before eventually settling in Washington, District of Columbia, the nation's capital was relocated from New York to Philadelphia in the year 1790. in the year 1800.
The establishment of a powerful national government that was acknowledged without doubt by each and every American citizen was the most significant achievement of the Washington administration. As a result of the tenacious leadership of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, his administration took on the debts of the states, established the Bank of the United States in order to stabilize the financial system, and established a uniform system of tariffs and other taxes in order to pay off the debt and provide a financial infrastructure. The Federalist Party was the first political party in the world to be founded on the basis of voters, and Hamilton established it in order to provide support for his policies.
During the year 1791, the United States Congress passed the United States Bill of Rights in order to appease the Anti-Federalists who were concerned about an overly powerful central government. It was the first ten amendments to the Constitution, and it safeguarded individual liberties such as freedom of expression and religion exercise, as well as jury trials, and it specified that individuals and states had rights that were reserved for them.
System with two parties the primary article: the first party system
A depiction of the actions that took place on election day in Philadelphia Thomas Jefferson and James Madison established the Republican Party, which was the opposing party. Between the years 1794 and 1795, Hamilton and Washington presented the nation with the Jay Treaty, which was responsible for reestablishing positive ties with Britain. During the furious protests of the Jeffersonians, the people organized themselves behind either one of the two parties, which resulted in the establishment of the First Party System. With the goal of increasing commerce with Britain, Federalists advocated for the advancement of corporate, financial, and commercial interests. The Federalists were accused by Republicans of plotting to establish a monarchy, to transform the wealthy into a governing class, and to convert the United States into a pawn for the British imperial government. Politics were quite hot, despite the fact that the pact was approved.
Problems that the federal government must deal with
The Northwest Indian War, the ongoing Cherokee–American battles, and the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794, in which western settlers revolted against a federal tax on whiskey, were all significant threats to the newly established federal government. The Corps of Discovery met Chinooks on the Lower Columbia in October of 1805. At the same time as the insurgents were being driven out and the power of the federal government was being firmly established, Washington called upon the state militia and personally led an army against the settlers.
Washington established a precedent by refusing to serve for more than two terms as president. In his famous farewell address, he praised the advantages of the federal government, emphasized the significance of ethics and morals, and cautioned against the creation of political parties and foreign alliances.
In the election that took place in 1796, Unionist John Adams emerged victorious against Jefferson. The Federalists took advantage of the impending conflict with France to work toward silencing the Republicans through the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts, to construct a huge army with Hamilton serving as its commander, and to make preparations for an invasion by the French. On the other hand, after Adams dispatched a successful peace mission to France, which brought an end to the quasi-war that occurred in 1798, the Federalists were split.
Growing demand for the services of slave labor Slavery in the United States of America: the main article
During the first two decades following the Revolutionary War, there were significant shifts in the status of slavery among the states, as well as an increase in the number of liberated blacks. Richmond, Virginia was one of the places where slaves were waiting to be sold. Slavery was abolished in the northern states, which were motivated by their reduced economic dependence on slavery and were inspired by revolutionary ideas of the equality of man.
Manumission was made simpler by the states of the Upper South, which led to an increase in the percentage of free blacks in the Upper South, which went from less than one percent in 1792 to more than ten percent by 1810. At that point in time, fourteen point five percent of all black people living in the United States were free. After that date, the number of manumissions dropped significantly as a result of the growing demand for slaves brought on by the expansion of cotton farming in the Deep South. Additionally, an internal slave trade in the United States became an important source of profit for a great number of landowners and traffickers.
In the year 1807, when there were already four million slaves living in the United States, Congress declared that the United States would no longer participate in the Atlantic slave trade.
The presidency of Thomas Jefferson and the Louisiana Purchase are the two main topics that discuss Jeffersonian republicanism and Louisiana.
In addition to being a scientist, Thomas Jefferson considered himself to be a man of the frontier. He had a strong desire to develop and explore the United States of America lands.
The upper Missouri River and its tributaries are described in Cha
The history of the lands that became the United States began with the arrival of the first people in the Americas around 15,000 BC. Numerous indigenous cultures formed, and many saw transformations in the 16th century away from more densely populated lifestyles and towards reorganized polities elsewhere. The European colonization of the Americas began in the late 15th century, however most colonies in what would later become the United States were settled after 1600. By the 1760s, the thirteen British colonies contained 2.5 million people and were established along the Atlantic Coast east of the Appalachian Mountains. The Southern Colonies built an agricultural system on slave labor, importing slaves from Africa for this purpose. After defeating France, the British government imposed a series of taxes, including the Stamp Act of 1765, rejecting the colonists' constitutional argument that new taxes needed their approval. Resistance to these taxes, especially the Boston Tea Party in 1773, led to Parliament issuing punitive laws designed to end self-government. Armed conflict began in Massachusetts in 1775.
In 1776, in Philadelphia, the Second Continental Congress declared the independence of the colonies as the 'United States'. Led by General George Washington, it won the Revolutionary War. The peace treaty of 1783 established the borders of the new sovereign state. The Articles of Confederation established a central government, but it was ineffectual at providing stability as it could not collect taxes and had no executive officer. A convention wrote a new Constitution that was adopted in 1789 and a Bill of Rights was added in 1791 to guarantee inalienable rights. With Washington as the first president and Alexander Hamilton his chief adviser, a strong central government was created. Purchase of the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803 doubled the size of the United States.
Encouraged by the notion of manifest destiny, the United States expanded to the Pacific Coast. While the nation was large in terms of area, its population in 1790 was only four million. Westward expansion was driven by a quest for inexpensive land for yeoman farmers and slave owners. The expansion of slavery was increasingly controversial and fueled political and constitutional battles, which were resolved by compromises. Slavery was abolished in all states north of the Mason–Dixon line by 1804, but states in the south continued the institution, to support the kinds of large scale agriculture that dominated the southern economy. Precipitated by the election of Abraham Lincoln as president in 1860, the Civil War began as the southern states seceded from the Union to form their own pro-slavery country, the Confederate States of America. The defeat of the Confederates in 1865 led to the abolition of slavery. In the Reconstruction era following the war, legal and voting rights were extended to freed male slaves. The national government emerged much stronger, and gained explicit duty to protect individual rights. However, when white southern Democrats regained their political power in the South in 1877, often by paramilitary suppression of voting, they passed Jim Crow laws to maintain white supremacy, as well as new state constitutions that legalized discrimination based on race and prevented most African Americans from participating in public life.
The United States became the world's leading industrial power at the turn of the 20th century, due to an outburst of entrepreneurship and industrialization and the arrival of millions of immigrant workers and farmers. A national railroad network was completed and large-scale mines and factories were established. Mass dissatisfaction with corruption, inefficiency, and traditional politics stimulated the Progressive movement, from the 1890s to the 1920s, leading to reforms, including the federal income tax, direct election of Senators, granting of citizenship to many indigenous people, alcohol prohibition, and women's suffrage. Initially neutral during World War I, the United States declared war on Germany in 1917 and funded the Allied victory the following year. After the prosperous Roaring Twenties, the Wall Street Crash of 1929 marked the onset of the decade-long worldwide Great Depression. President Franklin D. Roosevelt implemented his New Deal programs, including relief for the unemployed, support for farmers, social security, and a minimum wage. The New Deal defined modern American liberalism. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States entered World War II and financed the Allied war effort, and helped defeat Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in the European theater. Its involvement culminated in using newly American invented nuclear weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki to defeat Imperial Japan in the Pacific War.
Pictorial map of the United States in 1992, after the end of the Cold War This article is part of a series on the Culture of the United States Greater coat of arms of the United States.svg Society HistoryLanguagePeople race and ethnicityReligion Arts and literature ArchitectureArtDanceFashionLiterature comicspoetryMusicSculptureTheater Other CuisineFestivalsFolkloreMedia newspapersradiocinemaTVInternetAmericanaMythologySports Symbols FlagGreat SealMonumentsMottoAnthemBirdWorld Heritage Sites Flag of the United States.svg United States portal vte The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as rival superpowers in the aftermath of World War II. During the Cold War, the two countries confronted each other indirectly in the arms race, the Space Race, propaganda campaigns, and proxy wars. In the 1960s, in large part due to the strength of the civil rights movement, another wave of social reforms was enacted which enforced the constitutional rights of voting and freedom of movement to African Americans. The Cold War ended when the Soviet Union was officially dissolved, leaving the United States as the world's sole superpower. Foreign policy after the Cold War has often focused on conflicts in the Middle East, especially after the September 11 attacks. Early in the 21st century, the United States experienced the Great Recession and the COVID-19 pandemic, which had a negative effect on the local economy.
Beginnings Main articles: Prehistory of the United States, History of Native Americans in the United States, and Pre-Columbian era See also: Native Americans in the United States
Approximate location of the ice-free corridor and specific Paleoindian sites It is not definitively known how or when Native Americans first settled the Americas and the present-day United States. The prevailing theory proposes that people from Eurasia followed game across Beringia, a land bridge that connected Siberia to present-day Alaska during the Ice Age, and then spread southward throughout the Americas. This migration may have begun as early as 30,000 years ago and continued through to about 10,000 years ago, when the land bridge became submerged by the rising sea level caused by the melting glaciers. These early inhabitants, called Paleo-Indians, soon diversified into hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes.
This pre-Columbian era incorporates all periods in the history of the Americas before the appearance of European influences on the American continents, spanning from the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during the early modern period. While the term technically refers to the era before Christopher Columbus' voyage in 1492, in practice the term usually includes the history of American indigenous cultures until they were conquered or significantly influenced by Europeans, even if this happened decades or centuries after Columbus's initial landing.
Paleo-Indians Main article: Pre-Columbian North America
The cultural areas of pre-Columbian North America, according to Alfred Kroeber By 10,000 BCE, humans were relatively well-established throughout North America. Originally, Paleo-Indians hunted Ice Age megafauna like mammoths, but as they began to go extinct, people turned instead to bison as a food source. As time went on, foraging for berries and seeds became an important alternative to hunting. Paleo-Indians in central Mexico were the first in the Americas to farm, starting to plant corn, beans, and squash around 8,000 BCE. Eventually, the knowledge began to spread northward. By 3,000 BCE, corn was being grown in the valleys of Arizona and New Mexico, followed by primitive irrigation systems and early villages of the Hohokam.
One of the earlier cultures in the present-day United States was the Clovis culture, who are primarily identified by the use of fluted spear points called the Clovis point. From 9,100 to 8,850 BCE, the culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, New Mexico. The Folsom culture was similar, but is marked by the use of the Folsom point.
A later migration identified by linguists, anthropologists, and archeologists occurred around 8,000 BCE. This included Na-Dene-speaking peoples, who reached the Pacific Northwest by 5,000 BCE. From there, they migrated along the Pacific Coast and into the interior and constructed large multi-family dwellings in their villages, which were used only seasonally in the summer to hunt and fish, and in the winter to gather food supplies. Another group, the Oshara tradition people, who lived from 5,500 BCE to 600 CE, were part of the Archaic Southwest.
Mound builders and pueblos 10:58 The First Corn, folktale from the Pawnee people. Maize was the staple crop for Native American agriculture. Main articles: Mound Builders and Ancestral Puebloans
Grave Creek Mound, located in Moundsville, West Virginia, is one of the largest conical mounds in the United States. It was built by the Adena culture.
Monks Mound of Cahokia in summer
Cliff Palace, Mesa Verde National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site The Adena began constructing large earthwork mounds around 600 BCE. They are the earliest known people to have been Mound Builders, however, there are mounds in the United States that predate this culture. Watson Brake is an 11-mound complex in Louisiana that dates to 3,500 BCE, and nearby Poverty Point, built by the Poverty Point culture, is an earthwork complex that dates to 1,700 BCE. These mounds likely served a religious purpose.
The Adenans were absorbed into the Hopewell tradition, a powerful people who traded tools and goods across a wide territory. They continued the Adena tradition of mound-building, with remnants of several thousand still in existence across the core of their former territory in southern Ohio. The Hopewell pioneered a trading system called the Hopewell Exchange System, which at its greatest extent ran from the present-day Southeast up to the Canadian side of Lake Ontario. By 500 CE, the Hopewellians had too disappeared, absorbed into the larger Mississippian culture.
The Mississippians were a broad group of tribes. Their most important city was Cahokia, near modern-day St. Louis, Missouri. At its peak in the 12th century, the city had an estimated population of 20,000, larger than the population of London at the time. The entire city was centered around a mound that stood 100 feet tall. Cahokia, like many other cities and villages of the time, depended on hunting, foraging, trading, and agriculture, and developed a class system with slaves and human sacrifice that was influenced by societies to the south, like the Mayans.
In the Southwest, the Anasazi began constructing stone and adobe pueblos around 900 BCE. These apartment-like structures were often built into cliff faces, as seen in the Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde. Some grew to be the size of cities, with Pueblo Bonito along the Chaco River in New Mexico once consisting of 800 rooms.
Northwest and northeast Main articles: Indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands and Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast
The K'alyaan Totem pole of the Tlingit Kiks.adi Clan, erected at Sitka National Historical Park to commemorate the lives lost in the 1804 Battle of Sitka The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest were likely the most affluent Native Americans. Many distinct cultural groups and political entities developed there, but they all shared certain beliefs, traditions, and practices, such as the centrality of salmon as a resource and spiritual symbol. Permanent villages began to develop in this region as early as 1,000 BCE, and these communities celebrated by the gift-giving feast of the potlatch. These gatherings were usually organized to commemorate special events such as the raising of a Totem pole or the celebration of a new chief.
In present-day upstate New York, the Iroquois formed a confederacy of tribal peoples in the mid-15th century, consisting of the Oneida, Mohawk, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. Their system of affiliation was a kind of federation, different from the strong, centralized European monarchies. Each tribe had seats in a group of 50 sachem chiefs. It has been suggested that their culture contributed to political thinking during the development of the United States government. The Iroquois were powerful, waging war with many neighboring tribes, and later, Europeans. As their territory expanded, smaller tribes were forced further west, including the Osage, Kaw, Ponca, and Omaha peoples.
Native Hawaiians Main articles: Ancient Hawaii and Hawaiian Kingdom The exact date for the settling of Hawaii is disputed but the first settlement most likely took place between 940 and 1130 CE. Around 1200 CE, Tahitian explorers found and began settling the area as well establishing a new caste system. This marked the rise of the Hawaiian civilization, which would be largely separated from the rest of the world until the arrival of the British 600 years later. Europeans under the British explorer James Cook arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778, and within five years of contact, European military technology would help Kamehameha I conquer most of the island group, and eventually unify the islands for the first time; establishing the Hawaiian Kingdom.
Puerto Rico Main articles: History of Puerto Rico and Taino The island of Puerto Rico has been settled for at least 4,000 years dating back to the remains of Puerto Ferro man. Starting with the Ortoiroid culture, successive generations of native migrations arrived replacing or absorbing local populations. By the year 1000 Arawak people had arrived from South America via the Lesser Antilles, these settlers would become the Taino encountered by the Spanish in 1493. Upon European contact a native population between 30,000 and 60,000 was likely, led by a single chief called a Cacique. Colonization resulted in the decimation of the local inhabitants due to the harsh Encomienda system and epidemics caused by Old World diseases. Puerto Rico would remain a part of Spain until American annexation in 1898.
Norse exploration Main article: Norse colonization of North America
Leiv Eirikson Discovering America by Christian Krohg, 1893 The earliest recorded European mention of America is in a historical treatise by the medieval chronicler Adam of Bremen, circa 1075, where it is referred to as Vinland. It is also extensively referred to in the 13th-century Norse Vinland sagas, which relate to events which occurred around 1000. Whilst the strongest archaeological evidence of the existence of Norse settlements in America is located in Canada, most notably at L'Anse aux Meadows and dated to circa 1000, there is significant scholarly debate as to whether Norse explorers also made landfall in New England and other east-coast areas. In 1925, President Calvin Coolidge declared that a Norse explorer called Leif Erikson was the first European to discover America.
Early Native American tribal territories color-coded by linguistic group Colonization, settlement, and communities Main article: Colonial history of the United States
European territorial claims in North America, c.?1750 France Great Britain Spain After a period of exploration sponsored by major European states, the first successful English settlement was established in 1607. Europeans brought horses, cattle, and hogs to the Americas and, in turn, took back maize, turkeys, tomatoes, potatoes, tobacco, beans, and squash to Europe. Many explorers and early settlers died after being exposed to new diseases in the Americas. However, the effects of new Eurasian diseases carried by the colonists, especially smallpox and measles, were much worse for the Native Americans, as they had no immunity to them. They suffered epidemics and died in very large numbers, usually before large-scale European settlement began. Their societies were disrupted and hollowed out by the scale of deaths.
First settlements Main article: European colonization of the Americas Spanish contact Main article: Spanish colonization of the Americas Spanish explorers were the first Europeans to reach the present-day United States, after Christopher Columbus's expeditions established possessions in the Caribbean, including the modern-day U.S. territories of Puerto Rico, and parts of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Juan Ponce de Leon landed in Florida in 1513. Spanish expeditions quickly reached the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon, and the Great Plains.
20:05 The Letter of Christopher Columbus on the Discovery of America to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain In 1539, Hernando de Soto extensively explored the Southeast, and a year later Francisco Coronado explored from Arizona to central Kansas in search of gold. Escaped horses from Coronado's party spread over the Great Plains, and the Plains Indians mastered horsemanship within a few generations. Small Spanish settlements eventually grew to become important cities, such as San Antonio, Albuquerque, Tucson, Los Angeles, and San Francisco.
Dutch mid-Atlantic Main article: Dutch colonization of the Americas The Dutch West India Company sent explorer Henry Hudson to search for a Northwest Passage to Asia in 1609. New Netherland was established in 1621 by the company to capitalize on the North American fur trade. Growth was slow at first due to mismanagement by the Dutch and Native American conflicts. After the Dutch purchased the island of Manhattan from the Native Americans for a reported price of US$24, the land was named New Amsterdam and became the capital of New Netherland. The town rapidly expanded and in the mid-1600s it became an important trading center and port. Despite being Calvinists and building the Reformed Church in America, the Dutch were tolerant of other religions and cultures and traded with the Iroquois to the north.
The colony served as a barrier to British expansion from New England, and as a result a series of wars were fought. The colony was taken over by Britain as New York in 1664 and its capital was renamed New York City. New Netherland left an enduring legacy on American cultural and political life of religious tolerance and sensible trade in urban areas and rural traditionalism in the countryside. Notable Americans of Dutch descent include Martin Van Buren, Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt and the Frelinghuysens.
Swedish settlement Main article: New Sweden In the early years of the Swedish Empire, Swedish, Dutch, and German stockholders formed the New Sweden Company to trade furs and tobacco in North America. The company's first expedition was led by Peter Minuit, who had been governor of New Netherland from 1626 to 1631 but left after a dispute with the Dutch government, and landed in Delaware Bay in March 1638. The settlers founded Fort Christina at the site of modern-day Wilmington, Delaware, and made treaties with the indigenous groups for land ownership on both sides of the Delaware River.
Over the following seventeen years, 12 more expeditions brought settlers from the Swedish Empire to New Sweden. The colony established 19 permanent settlements along with many farms, extending into modern-day Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. It was incorporated into New Netherland in 1655 after a Dutch invasion from the neighboring New Netherland colony during the Second Northern War.
French and Spanish conflict Giovanni da Verrazzano landed in North Carolina in 1524, and was the first European to sail into New York Harbor and Narragansett Bay. A decade later, Jacques Cartier sailed in search of the Northwest Passage, but instead discovered the Saint Lawrence River and laid the foundation for French colonization of the Americas in New France. After the collapse of the first Quebec colony in the 1540s, French Huguenots settled at Fort Caroline near present-day Jacksonville in Florida. In 1565, Spanish forces led by Pedro Menendez destroyed the settlement and established the first European settlement in what would become the United States — St. Augustine.
After this, the French mostly remained in Quebec and Acadia, but far-reaching trade relationships with Native Americans throughout the Great Lakes and Midwest spread their influence. French colonists in small villages along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers lived in farming communities that served as a grain source for Gulf Coast settlements. The French established plantations in Louisiana along with settling New Orleans, Mobile and Biloxi.
British colonies Further information: British colonization of the Americas
The Mayflower, which transported Pilgrims to the New World. During the first winter at Plymouth, about half of the Pilgrims died. The English, drawn in by Francis Drake's raids on Spanish treasure ships leaving the New World, settled the strip of land along the east coast in the 1600s. The first British colony in North America was established at Roanoke by Walter Raleigh in 1585, but failed. It would be twenty years before another attempt.
The early British colonies were established by private groups seeking profit, and were marked by starvation, disease, and Native American attacks. Many immigrants were people seeking religious freedom or escaping political oppression, peasants displaced by the Industrial Revolution, or those simply seeking adventure and opportunity. Between the late 1610s and the Revolution, the British shipped an estimated 50,000 to 120,000 convicts to their American colonies.
In some areas, Native Americans taught colonists how to plant and harvest the native crops. In others, they attacked the settlers. Virgin forests provided an ample supply of building material and firewood. Natural inlets and harbors lined the coast, providing easy ports for essential trade with Europe. Settlements remained close to the coast due to this as well as Native American resistance and the Appalachian Mountains that were found in the interior.
First settlement in Jamestown Main articles: Jamestown, Virginia and Colony of Virginia
Squanto, known for having been an early liaison between the native populations in Southern New England and the Mayflower settlers The first successful English colony, Jamestown, was established by the Virginia Company in 1607 on the James River in Virginia. The colonists were preoccupied with the search for gold and were ill-equipped for life in the New World. Captain John Smith held the fledgling Jamestown together in the first year, and the colony descended into anarchy and nearly failed when he returned to England two years later. John Rolfe began experimenting with tobacco from the West Indies in 1612, and by 1614 the first shipment arrived in London. It became Virginia's chief source of revenue within a decade.
In 1624, after years of disease and Indian attacks, including the Powhatan attack of 1622, King James I revoked the Virginia Company's charter and made Virginia a royal colony.
New England Colonies Main articles: New England Colonies and Puritan migration to New England
The First Thanksgiving at Plymouth, 1914, Pilgrim Hall Museum, Plymouth, Massachusetts New England was initially settled primarily by Puritans fleeing religious persecution. The Pilgrims sailed for Virginia on the Mayflower in 1620, but were knocked off course by a storm and landed at Plymouth, where they agreed to a social contract of rules in the Mayflower Compact. Like Jamestown, Plymouth suffered from disease and starvation, but local Wampanoag Indians taught the colonists how to farm maize.
Plymouth was followed by the Puritans and Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630. They maintained a charter for self-government separate from England, and elected founder John Winthrop as the governor for most of its early years. Roger Williams opposed Winthrop's treatment of Native Americans and religious intolerance, and established the colony of Providence Plantations, later Rhode Island, on the basis of freedom of religion. Other colonists established settlements in the Connecticut River Valley, and on the coasts of present-day New Hampshire and Maine. Native American attacks continued, with the most significant occurring in the 1637 Pequot War and the 1675 King Philip's War.
New England became a center of commerce and industry due to the poor, mountainous soil making agriculture difficult. Rivers were harnessed to power grain mills and sawmills, and the numerous harbors facilitated trade. Tight-knit villages developed around these industrial centers, and Boston became one of America's most important ports.
Middle Colonies Main article: Middle Colonies
Indians trade packs of furs at a Hudson's Bay Company trading post in the 19th century. In the 1660s, the Middle Colonies of New York, New Jersey, and Delaware were established in the former Dutch New Netherland, and were characterized by a large degree of ethnic and religious diversity. At the same time, the Iroquois of New York, strengthened by years of fur trading with Europeans, formed the powerful Iroquois Confederacy.
The last colony in this region was Pennsylvania, established in 1681 by William Penn as a home for religious dissenters, including Quakers, Methodists, and the Amish. The capital of the colony, Philadelphia, became a dominant commercial center in a few short years, with busy docks and brick houses. While Quakers populated the city, German immigrants began to flood into the Pennsylvanian hills and forests, while the Scots-Irish pushed into the far western frontier.
Southern Colonies Main article: Southern Colonies
The Indian massacre of Jamestown settlers in 1622. Soon the colonists in the South feared all natives as enemies. The overwhelmingly rural Southern Colonies contrasted sharply with the New England and Middle Colonies. After Virginia, the second British colony south of New England was Maryland, established as a Catholic haven in 1632. The economy of these two colonies was built entirely on yeoman farmers and planters. The planters established themselves in the Tidewater region of Virginia, establishing massive plantations with slave labor.
In 1670, the Province of Carolina was established, and Charleston became the region's great trading port. While Virginia's economy was also based on tobacco, Carolina was more diversified, exporting rice, indigo, and lumber as well. In 1712, it was divided in two, creating North and South Carolina. The Georgia Colony – the last of the Thirteen Colonies – was established by James Oglethorpe in 1732 as a border to Spanish Florida and a reform colony for former prisoners and the poor.
Religion Main article: History of religion in the United States
John Gadsby Chapman, Baptism of Pocahontas, on display in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol Religiosity expanded greatly after the First Great Awakening, a religious revival in the 1740s which was led by preachers such as Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield. American Evangelicals affected by the Awakening added a new emphasis on divine outpourings of the Holy Spirit and conversions that implanted new believers with an intense love for God. Revivals encapsulated those hallmarks and carried the newly created evangelicalism into the early republic, setting the stage for the Second Great Awakening in the late 1790s. In the early stages, evangelicals in the South, such as Methodists and Baptists, preached for religious freedom and abolition of slavery; they converted many slaves and recognized some as preachers.
Government Main article: Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies Each of the 13 American colonies had a slightly different governmental structure. Typically, a colony was ruled by a governor appointed from London who controlled the executive administration and relied upon a locally elected legislature to vote on taxes and make laws. By the 18th century, the American colonies were growing very rapidly as a result of low death rates along with ample supplies of land and food. The colonies were richer than most parts of Britain, and attracted a steady flow of immigrants, especially teenagers who arrived as indentured servants.
Servitude and slavery Main articles: Indentured servitude in British America and Slavery in the colonial history of the United States Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America arrived as indentured servants. Few could afford the cost of the journey to America, and so this form of unfree labor provided a means to immigrate. Typically, people would sign a contract agreeing to a set term of labor, usually four to seven years, and in return would receive transport to America and a piece of land at the end of their servitude. In some cases, ships' captains received rewards for the delivery of poor migrants, and so extravagant promises and kidnapping were common. The Virginia Company and the Massachusetts Bay Company also used indentured servant labor.
The first African slaves were brought to Virginia in 1619, just twelve years after the founding of Jamestown. Initially regarded as indentured servants who could buy their freedom, the institution of slavery began to harden and the involuntary servitude became lifelong as the demand for labor on tobacco and rice plantations grew in the 1660s. Slavery became identified with brown skin color, at the time seen as a 'black race', and the children of slave women were born slaves. By the 1770s African slaves comprised a fifth of the American population.
The question of independence from Britain did not arise as long as the colonies needed British military support against the French and Spanish powers. Those threats were gone by 1765. However, London continued to regard the American colonies as existing for the benefit of the mother country in a policy known as mercantilism.
Colonial America was defined by a severe labor shortage that used forms of unfree labor, such as slavery and indentured servitude. The British colonies were also marked by a policy of avoiding strict enforcement of parliamentary laws, known as salutary neglect. This permitted the development of an American spirit distinct from that of its European founders.
Revolution and the new nation Main articles: History of the United States and History of the United States See also: First Party System and Second Party System
Map of the British, French and Spanish settlements in North America in 1750, before the French and Indian War An upper-class emerged in South Carolina and Virginia, with wealth based on large plantations operated by slave labor. A unique class system operated in upstate New York, where Dutch tenant farmers rented land from very wealthy Dutch proprietors, such as the Van Rensselaer family. The other colonies were more egalitarian, with Pennsylvania being representative. By the mid-18th century Pennsylvania was basically a middle-class colony with limited respect for its small upper-class. A writer in the Pennsylvania Journal in 1756 wrote:
The People of this Province are generally of the middling Sort, and at present pretty much upon a Level. They are chiefly industrious Farmers, Artificers or Men in Trade; they enjoy in are fond of Freedom, and the meanest among them thinks he has a right to Civility from the greatest.
Political integration and autonomy
Join, or Die: This 1756 political cartoon by Benjamin Franklin urged the colonies to join during the French and Indian War. The French and Indian War, part of the larger Seven Years' War, was a watershed event in the political development of the colonies. The influence of the French and Native Americans, the main rivals of the British Crown in the colonies and Canada, was significantly reduced and the territory of the Thirteen Colonies expanded into New France, both in Canada and Louisiana. The war effort also resulted in greater political integration of the colonies, as reflected in the Albany Congress and symbolized by Benjamin Franklin's call for the colonies to 'Join, or Die.' Franklin was a man of many inventions – one of which was the concept of a United States of America, which emerged after 1765 and would be realized a decade later.
Taxation without representation Further information: No taxation without representation
An 1846 painting of the 1773 Boston Tea Party
The population density in the American Colonies in 1775 Following Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, with the goal of organizing the new North American empire and protecting the Native Americans from colonial expansion into western lands beyond the Appalachian Mountains. In the following years, strains developed in the relations between the colonists and the Crown. The British Parliament passed the Stamp Act of 1765, imposing a tax on the colonies, without going through the colonial legislatures. The issue was drawn: did Parliament have the right to tax Americans who were not represented in it? Crying 'No taxation without representation', the colonists refused to pay the taxes as tensions escalated in the late 1760s and early 1770s.
The Boston Tea Party in 1773 was a direct action by activists in the town of Boston to protest against the new tax on tea. Parliament quickly responded the next year with the Intolerable Acts, stripping Massachusetts of its historic right of self-government and putting it under military rule, which sparked outrage and resistance in all thirteen colonies. Patriot leaders from every colony convened the First Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance to the Intolerable Acts. The Congress called for a boycott of British trade, published a list of rights and grievances, and petitioned the king to rectify those grievances. This appeal to the Crown had no effect, though, and so the Second Continental Congress was convened in 1775 to organize the defense of the colonies against the British Army.
Common people became insurgents against the British even though they were unfamiliar with the ideological rationales being offered. They held very strongly a sense of 'rights' that they felt the British were deliberately violating – rights that stressed local autonomy, fair dealing, and government by consent. They were highly sensitive to the issue of tyranny, which they saw manifested by the arrival in Boston of the British Army to punish the Bostonians. This heightened their sense of violated rights, leading to rage and demands for revenge, and they had faith that God was on their side.
American Revolution Main article: American Revolution
John Trumbull's Declaration of Independence 9:51 Reading of The Declaration of Independence originally written by Thomas Jefferson, presented on July 4, 1776
Washington's surprise crossing of the Delaware River in December 1776 was a major comeback after the loss of New York City; his army defeated the British in two battles and recaptured New Jersey. The Second Continental Congress voted to declare independence on July 2, 1776, and the Declaration of Independence was drafted by the Committee of Five. The Declaration of Independence presented arguments in favor of the rights of citizens, stating that all men are created equal, supporting the rights of Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness, and demanding the consent of the governed. It also listed grievances against the crown. The Founding Fathers were guided by the ideology of republicanism, rejecting the monarchism of Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence was signed by members of the Congress on July 4. This date has since been commemorated as Independence Day.
The American Revolutionary War began with the Battles of Lexington and Concord when American and British forces clashed on April 19, 1775. George Washington was appointed general of the Continental Army. The New York and New Jersey campaign was the first major campaign of the war, beginning in 1776. Washington's crossing of the Delaware River began a series of victories that expelled British forces from New Jersey. The British began the Saratoga campaign in 1777 to capture Albany, New York as a choke point. After American victory at Saratoga, France, the Netherlands, and Spain began providing support to the Continental Army. Britain responded to defeat in the northern theater by advancing in the southern theater, beginning with the Capture of Savannah in 1778. American forces reclaimed the south in 1781, and the British Army was defeated in the Siege of Yorktown on October 19, 1781.
King George III formally ordered the end of hostilities on December 5, 1782, recognizing American independence. The Treaty of Paris was negotiated between Great Britain and the United States to establish terms of peace. It was signed on September 3, 1783, and it was ratified by the Congress of the Confederation on January 14, 1784. Washington resigned his commission as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army on December 23, 1783.
The United States after the Treaty of Paris, with individual state claims and cessions through 1802 Confederation period Main article: Confederation period 49:18 Reading of the United States Constitution of 1787 The Articles of Confederation were ratified as the governing law of the United States, written to limit the powers of the central government in favor of state governments. This caused economic decline, as the government was unable to pass economic legislation and pay its debts. Nationalists worried that the confederate nature of the union was too fragile to withstand an armed conflict with any adversarial states, or even internal revolts such as the Shays' Rebellion of 1786 in Massachusetts.
In the 1780s the national government was able to settle the issue of the western regions of the young United States, which were ceded by the states to Congress and became territories. With the migration of settlers to the Northwest, soon they became states. The American Indian Wars continued in the 1780s as settlers moved west, prompting Native American attacks on American civilians and in turn prompting American attacks on Native American civilians. The Northwestern Confederacy and American settlers began fighting the Northwest Indian War in the late 1780s; the Northwestern Confederacy received British support, but the settlers received little assistance from the American government.
Nationalists – most of them war veterans – organized in every state and convinced Congress to call the Philadelphia Convention in 1787. The delegates from every state wrote a new Constitution that created a federal government with a strong president and powers of taxation. The new government reflected the prevailing republican ideals of guarantees of individual liberty and of constraining the power of government through a system of separation of powers. A national debate took place over whether the constitution should be ratified, and it was ratified by a sufficient number of states in 1788 to begin forming a federal government. The United States Electoral College chose George Washington as the first President of the United States in 1789.
Economic growth in America per capita income. Index with 1700 set as 100. President George Washington Main article: Presidency of George Washington
George Washington's legacy remains among the greatest in American history, as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, hero of the Revolution, and the first President of the United States 51:03 Reading of the Farewell address of President George Washington, 1796 George Washington – a renowned hero of the American Revolutionary War, commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, and president of the Constitutional Convention – became the first President of the United States under the new Constitution in 1789. The national capital moved from New York to Philadelphia in 1790 and finally settled in Washington D.C. in 1800.
The major accomplishment of the Washington Administration was creating a strong national government that was recognized without question by all Americans. His government, following the vigorous leadership of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, assumed the debts of the states, created the Bank of the United States to stabilize the financial system, and set up a uniform system of tariffs and other taxes to pay off the debt and provide a financial infrastructure. To support his programs Hamilton created a new political party – the first in the world based on voters – the Federalist Party.
To assuage the Anti-Federalists who feared a too-powerful central government, the Congress adopted the United States Bill of Rights in 1791. Comprising the first ten amendments of the Constitution, it guaranteed individual liberties such as freedom of speech and religious practice, jury trials, and stated that citizens and states had reserved rights.
Two-party system Main article: First Party System
Depiction of election-day activities in Philadelphia Thomas Jefferson and James Madison formed an opposition Republican Party. Hamilton and Washington presented the country in 1794 with the Jay Treaty that reestablished good relations with Britain. The Jeffersonians vehemently protested, and the voters aligned behind one party or the other, thus setting up the First Party System. Federalists promoted business, financial and commercial interests and wanted more trade with Britain. Republicans accused the Federalists of plans to establish a monarchy, turn the rich into a ruling class, and making the United States a pawn of the British. The treaty passed, but politics became intensely heated.
Challenges to the federal government
Corps of Discovery meet Chinooks on the Lower Columbia, October 1805 Serious challenges to the new federal government included the Northwest Indian War, the ongoing Cherokee–American wars, and the 1794 Whiskey Rebellion, in which western settlers protested against a federal tax on liquor. Washington called the state militia and personally led an army against the settlers, as the insurgents melted away and the power of the federal government was firmly established.
Washington refused to serve more than two terms – setting a precedent – and in his famous farewell address, he extolled the benefits of federal government and importance of ethics and morality while warning against foreign alliances and the formation of political parties.
John Adams, a Federalist, defeated Jefferson in the 1796 election. War loomed with France and the Federalists used the opportunity to try to silence the Republicans with the Alien and Sedition Acts, build up a large army with Hamilton at the head, and prepare for a French invasion. However, the Federalists became divided after Adams sent a successful peace mission to France that ended the Quasi-War of 1798.
Increasing demand for slave labor Main article: Slavery in the United States
Slaves Waiting for Sale: Richmond, Virginia During the first two decades after the Revolutionary War, there were dramatic changes in the status of slavery among the states and an increase in the number of freed blacks. Inspired by revolutionary ideals of the equality of men and influenced by their lesser economic reliance on slavery, northern states abolished slavery.
States of the Upper South made manumission easier, resulting in an increase in the proportion of free blacks in the Upper South from less than one percent in 1792 to more than 10 percent by 1810. By that date, a total of 13.5 percent of all blacks in the United States were free. After that date, with the demand for slaves on the rise because of the Deep South's expanding cotton cultivation, the number of manumissions declined sharply; and an internal U.S. slave trade became an important source of wealth for many planters and traders.
In 1807, with four million slaves already in the United States, Congress severed the U.S.'s involvement with the Atlantic slave trade.
Louisiana and Jeffersonian republicanism Main articles: Presidency of Thomas Jefferson and Louisiana Purchase
Thomas Jefferson saw himself as a man of the frontier and a scientist; he was keenly interested in expanding and exploring the West.
Territorial expansion; Louisiana Purchase in white 10:36 Chapter IV of The Journal of Lewis and Clarke, describes the upper Missouri River and its tributaries Jefferson defeated Adams massively for the presidency in the 1800 election. Jefferson's major achievement as president was the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which provided U.S. settlers with vast potential for expansion west of the Mississippi River. Jefferson, a scientist, supported expeditions to explore and map the new domain, most notably the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Jefferson believed deeply in republicanism and argued it should be based on the independent yeoman farmer and planter; he distrusted cities, factories and banks. He also distrusted the federal government and judges, and tried to weaken the judiciary. However he met his match in John Marshall, a Federalist from Virginia. Although the Constitution specified a Supreme Court, its functions were vague until Marshall, the Chief Justice of the United States, defined them, especially the power to overturn acts of Congress or states that violated the Constitution, first enunciated in 1803 in Marbury v. Madison.
War of 1812 Main article: War of 1812 Americans were increasingly angry at the British violation of American ships' neutral rights to hurt France, the impressment of 10,000 American sailors needed by the Royal Navy to fight Napoleon, and British support for hostile Indians attacking American settlers in the American Midwest with the goal of creating a pro-British Indian barrier state to block American expansion westward. They may also have desired to annex all or part of British North America, although this is still heavily debated. Despite strong opposition from the Northeast, especially from Federalists who did not want to disrupt trade with Britain, Congress declared war on June 18, 1812.
Oliver Hazard Perry's message to William Henry Harrison after the Battle of Lake Erie began with: 'We have met the enemy and they are ours' The war was frustrating for both sides. Both sides tried to invade the other and were repulsed. The American high command remained incompetent until the last year. The American militia proved ineffective because the soldiers were reluctant to leave home and efforts to invade Canada repeatedly failed. The British blockade ruined American commerce, bankrupted the Treasury, and further angered New Englanders, who smuggled supplies to Britain. The Americans under General William Henry Harrison finally gained naval control of Lake Erie and defeated the Indians under Tecumseh in Canada, while Andrew Jackson ended the Indian threat in the Southeast. The Indian threat to expansion into the Midwest was permanently ended. The British invaded and occupied much of Maine.
The British raided and burned Washington, but were repelled at Baltimore in 1814 – where the 'Star Spangled Banner' was written to celebrate the American success. In upstate New York a major British invasion of New York State was turned back at the Battle of Plattsburgh. Finally in early 1815 Andrew Jackson decisively defeated a major British invasion at the Battle of New Orleans, making him the most famous war hero.
With Napoleon gone, the causes of the war had evaporated and both sides agreed to a peace that left the prewar boundaries intact. Americans claimed victory on February 18, 1815, as news came almost simultaneously of Jackson's victory of New Orleans and the peace treaty that left the prewar boundaries in place. Americans swelled with pride at success in the 'second war of independence'; the naysayers of the antiwar Federalist Party were put to shame and the party never recovered. This helped lead to an emerging American identity that cemented national pride over state pride.
Britain never achieved the war goal of granting the Indians a barrier state to block further American settlement and this allowed settlers to pour into the Midwest without fear of a major threat. The War of 1812 also destroyed America's negative perception of a standing army, which was proved useful in many areas against the British as opposed to ill-equipped and poorly-trained militias in the early months of the war, and War Department officials instead decided to place regular troops as the main military capabilities of the government.
Second Great Awakening Main article: Second Great Awakening
A drawing of a Protestant camp meeting The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant revival movement that affected virtually all of society during the early 19th century and led to rapid church growth. The movement began around 1790, gained momentum by 1800, and, after 1820 membership rose rapidly among Baptist and Methodist congregations, whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the 1840s.
It enrolled millions of new members in existing evangelical denominations and led to the formation of new denominations. Many converts believed that the Awakening heralded a new millennial age. The Second Great Awakening stimulated the establishment of many reform movements – including abolitionism and temperance designed to remove the evils of society before the anticipated Second Coming of Jesus Christ.
Era of Good Feelings Main article: Era of Good Feelings As strong opponents of the War of 1812, the Federalists held the Hartford Convention in 1814 that hinted at disunion. National euphoria after the victory at New Orleans ruined the prestige of the Federalists and they no longer played a significant role as a political party. President Madison and most Republicans realized they were foolish to let the First Bank of the United States close down, for its absence greatly hindered the financing of the war. So, with the assistance of foreign bankers, they chartered the Second Bank of the United States in 1816.
Settlers crossing the Plains of Nebraska The Republicans also imposed tariffs designed to protect the infant industries that had been created when Britain was blockading the U.S. With the collapse of the Federalists as a party, the adoption of many Federalist principles by the Republicans, and the systematic policy of President James Monroe in his two terms to downplay partisanship, society entered an Era of Good Feelings, with far less partisanship than before, and closed out the First Party System.
The Monroe Doctrine, expressed in 1823, proclaimed the United States' opinion that European powers should no longer colonize or interfere in the Americas. This was a defining moment in the foreign policy of the United States. The Monroe Doctrine was adopted in response to American and British fears over Russian and French expansion into the Western Hemisphere.
In 1832, President Andrew Jackson, 7th President of the United States, ran for a second term under the slogan 'Jackson and no bank' and did not renew the charter of the Second Bank, dissolving the bank in 1836. Jackson was convinced that central banking was used by the elite to take advantage of the average American, and instead implemented publicly owned banks in various states, popularly known as 'pet banks'.
Expansion and reform Indian removal Main article: Indian removal
The Indian Removal Act resulted in the transplantation of several Native American tribes and the Trail of Tears. In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, which authorized the president to negotiate treaties that exchanged Native American tribal lands in the eastern states for lands west of the Mississippi River. Its goal was primarily to remove Native Americans, including the Five Civilized Tribes, from the American Southeast – they occupied land that settlers wanted.
Jacksonian Democrats demanded the forcible removal of native populations who refused to acknowledge state laws to reservations in the West. Whigs and religious leaders opposed the move as inhumane. Thousands of deaths resulted from the relocations, as seen in the Cherokee Trail of Tears. The Trail of Tears resulted in approximately 2,000–8,000 of the 16,543 relocated Cherokee perishing along the way. Many of the Seminole Indians in Florida refused to move west; they fought the Army for years in the Seminole Wars.
Second party system Main articles: Second Party System and Presidency of Andrew Jackson After the First Party System of Federalists and Republicans withered away in the 1820s, the stage was set for the emergence of a new party system based on well organized local parties that appealed for the votes of all adult white men. The former Jeffersonian party split into factions. They split over the choice of a successor to President James Monroe, and the party faction that supported many of the old Jeffersonian principles, led by Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren, became the Democratic Party. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828:
Jacksonians believed the people's will had finally prevailed. Through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president. The Democrats became the nation's first well-organized national party, and tight party organization became the hallmark of nineteenth-century American politics.
Horace Greeley's New York Tribune—the leading Whig paper—endorsed Clay for President and Fillmore for Governor, 1844. Opposing factions led by Henry Clay helped form the Whig Party. The Democratic Party had a small but decisive advantage over the Whigs until the 1850s, when the Whigs fell apart over the issue of slavery.
The great majority of anti-slavery activists, such as Abraham Lincoln and Mr. Walters, rejected Garrison's theology and held that slavery was an unfortunate social evil, not a sin.
Westward expansion and Manifest Destiny Main articles: American frontier and Manifest destiny The American colonies and the newly formed union grew rapidly in population and area, as pioneers pushed the frontier of settlement west. The process finally ended around 1890–1912 as the last major farmlands and ranch lands were settled. Native American tribes in some places resisted militarily, but they were overwhelmed by settlers and the army and after 1830 were relocated to reservations in the west. The highly influential 'Frontier thesis' of Wisconsin historian Frederick Jackson Turner argues that the frontier shaped the national character, with its boldness, violence, innovation, individualism, and democracy.
The California Gold Rush news of gold brought some 300,000 people to California from the rest of the United States and abroad. Recent historians have emphasized the multicultural nature of the frontier. Enormous popular attention in the media focuses on the 'Wild West' of the second half of the 19th century. As defined by Hine and Faragher, 'frontier history tells the story of the creation and defense of communities, the use of the land, the development of markets, and the formation of states'. They explain, 'It is a tale of conquest, but also one of survival, persistence, and the merging of peoples and cultures that gave birth and continuing life to America.'
The first settlers in the west were the Spanish in New Mexico; they became U.S. citizens in 1848. The Hispanics in California were overwhelmed by over 100,000 California Gold Rush miners. California grew explosively. San Francisco by 1880 had become the economic hub of the entire Pacific Coast with a diverse population of a quarter million.
From the early 1830s to 1869, the Oregon Trail and its many offshoots were used by over 300,000 settlers. '49ers, ranchers, farmers, and entrepreneurs and their families headed to California, Oregon, and other points in the far west. Wagon-trains took five or six months on foot; after 1869, the trip took 6 days by rail.
Manifest destiny was the belief that American settlers were destined to expand across the continent. This concept was born out of 'A sense of mission to redeem the Old World by high example... generated by the potentialities of a new earth for building a new heaven'. Manifest Destiny was rejected by modernizers, especially the Whigs like Henry Clay and Abraham Lincoln who wanted to build cities and factories – not more farms. Democrats strongly favored expansion, and won the key election of 1844. After a bitter debate in Congress the Republic of Texas was annexed in 1845, leading to war with Mexico, who considered Texas to be a part of Mexico due to the large numbers of Mexican settlers.
The American occupation of Mexico City in 1848 The Mexican–American War broke out with the Whigs opposed to the war, and the Democrats supporting the war. The U.S. army, using regulars and large numbers of volunteers, defeated the Mexican armies, invaded at several points, captured Mexico City and won decisively. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war in 1848. Many Democrats wanted to annex all of Mexico, but that idea was rejected by White Southerners who argued that by incorporating millions of Mexican people, mainly of mixed race, would undermine the United States as an exclusively white republic.
Instead the U.S. took Texas and the lightly settled northern parts. The Hispanic residents were given full citizenship and the Mexican Indians became American Indians. Simultaneously, gold was discovered in California in 1849, attracting over 100,000 men to northern California in a matter of months in the California Gold Rush. To clear the state for settlers, the U.S. government began a policy of extermination since termed the California genocide. A peaceful compromise with Britain gave the U.S. ownership of the Oregon Country, which was renamed the Oregon Territory.
The demand for guano led the United States to pass the Guano Islands Act in 1856, which enabled citizens of the United States to take possession, in the name of the United States, of unclaimed islands containing guano deposits. Under the act the United States annexed nearly 100 islands in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. By 1903, 66 of these islands were recognized as territories of the United States.
Civil War and Reconstruction Divisions between North and South Main articles: Origins of the American Civil War and History of the United States
United States map, 1863 Union states Union territories not permitting slavery Border Union states, permitting slavery Confederate states Union territories permitting slavery
Frederick Douglass 7:48 Excerpt of Narrative of the life of Frederick Douglas, a major inspiration to American Abolitionist Movement. Warning: file contains explicit language. The central issue after 1848 was the expansion of slavery, with the anti-slavery elements in the North pitted against the pro-slavery elements that dominated the South. A small number of active Northerners were abolitionists who declared that ownership of slaves was a sin and demanded its immediate abolition. Much larger numbers in the North were against the expansion of slavery, seeking to put it on the path to extinction so that America would be committed to free land, free labor, and free speech. Southern white Democrats insisted that slavery was of economic, social, and cultural benefit to all whites, and denounced all anti-slavery spokesmen as 'abolitionists'.
Justifications of slavery included economics, history, religion, legality, social good, and even humanitarianism. Defenders of slavery argued that the sudden end to the slave economy would have had a profound and fatal economic impact in the South where reliance on slave labor was the foundation of their economy. They also argued that if all the slaves were freed, there would be widespread unemployment and chaos.
Religious activists were split on slavery, with the Methodists and Baptists dividing into northern and southern denominations. In the North, the Methodists, Congregationalists, and Quakers included many abolitionists, especially among women activists.
Compromise of 1850 and popular sovereignty Main article: Compromise of 1850 The issue of slavery in the new territories was seemingly settled by the Compromise of 1850, brokered by Whig Henry Clay and Democrat Stephen Douglas; the Compromise included the admission of California as a free state in exchange for no federal restrictions on slavery placed on Utah or New Mexico. A point of contention was the Fugitive Slave Act, which increased federal enforcement and required even free states to cooperate in turning over fugitive slaves to their owners. Abolitionists highlighted the Act as particularly harmful in their fight against slavery, as evinced in the best-selling anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe.
The Compromise of 1820 was repealed in 1854 with the Kansas–Nebraska Act, promoted by Senator Douglas in the name of 'popular sovereignt'y and democracy. It permitted voters to decide on the legality of slavery in each territory, and allowed Douglas to adopt neutrality on the issue of slavery. Anti-slavery forces rose in anger and alarm, forming the new Republican Party. Pro- and anti- contingents rushed to Kansas to vote slavery up or down, resulting in a miniature civil war called Bleeding Kansas. By the late 1850s, the young Republican Party dominated nearly all northern states and thus the electoral college. It insisted that slavery would never be allowed to expand.
Plantation economy Main article: Plantation complexes in the Southern United States The Southern slavery-based societies had become wealthy based on their cotton and other agricultural commodity production, and some particularly profited from the internal slave trade. Northern cities such as Boston and New York, and regional industries, were tied economically to slavery by banking, shipping, and manufacturing, including textile mills. By 1860, there were four million slaves in the South, nearly eight times as many as there were nationwide in 1790. The plantations were highly profitable, due to the heavy European demand for raw cotton. Most of the profits were invested in new lands and in purchasing more slaves.
For the 50 of the country's first 72 years, a slaveholder served as President of the United States and, during that period, only slaveholding presidents were re-elected to second terms. In addition, southern states benefi
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